The Battle Of Hattin 1187 A.D.

A depiction of Guy de Lusignan's meeting with Saladin after defeat at Hattin

Introduction:

Battle of Hattin was fought in 1187 between armies of Saladin and allied crusading forces under flag of Jerusalem. The battle was fought at a place near Tiberias Israel, known as 'horns of Hattin' due to a mountain having shapes of horns and a Muslim village named as Hittin near that place.That battle proved to be a heavy blow to Crusaders' ever shaking morale in the holy land. Around 30,000 Muslim soldiers and 20,000 crusaders took part in that battle. Casualties were very low on Muslims' side, on the other hand approximately 17,000 crusaders lost their lives. Saladin was leading his forces while crusaders were led by Guy de Lusignan King of Jerusalem, Balian de Ibelin, Raynald de Chatillon, Raymond III of Tripoli and Gerard de Rideford.

A map showing positions and strategy of both armies

Background:

In the year 1095 on call of the Pope Urban II allied crusading forces of Europe went on a journey to regain control of holy lands which were then being controlled by Muslims. In year 1099 the allied crusading forces were on the gates of Jerusalem which was conquered without any big resistance. In coming years crusaders from different countries of Europe occupied key points in holy lands and they constructed huge invincible castles there.

Saladin proved himself a true successor of Noor Al-Din Zangi. He emerged as only hope of Islam against European crusaders and he emerged as the only leader of both Arabs and Turks in holy land. Saladin fought with crusaders from time to time but he signed an uneasy truce with them because he had to pay attention on his empire's domestic affairs.

This situation lasted till the death of King Baldwin IV, the leper king of Jerusalem. After his demise his sister Sibylla's son Baldwin V became king, but he was a sickly child and died soon. In 1186 Guy de Lusignan, Sybilla's second husband became king of Jerusalem in his wife's right. In the same year his ally and a religious zealot Raynald de Chatillon broke that 4 years old uneasy truce with Muslims by attacking a large caravan traveling between Cairo and Damascus. He killed the guards, stole the trade goods and took merchants hostage. Saladin sent envoys to Raynald to return the merchants and goods, on his refusal he sent envoys to Guy de Lusignan. He listened to envoys and acknowledged their case but he could not dare to annoy his closest and most important ally Raynald de Chatillon. War was now inevitable.

Ghassan Massoud playing role of Saladin

Marton Csokas playing role of Guy de Lusignan

Brenden Gleeson playing role of Raynald de Chatillon

Kingdom

of

Heaven 

(2005)

Important Events:

There are some events which are important to discuss before I jump to the Saturday, July 4, 1187 at Horns of Hattin. Here I give a short brief of those important events;

Disagreement And Reconciliation Among Crusaders: Announcement of Guy as King of Jerusalem caused divide, dissension and disagreement among crusaders. It was high time to realize the threat to Jerusalem from a keen enemy like Saladin but Raymond III of Tripoli the regent for child-king Baldwin V was disgusted by this announcement. At that time a council of nobles was running the state business. Gerard de Rideford, Raynald de Chatillon and the Knights Templar were in favor of King Guy de Lusignan and his queen Sibylla. Raymond III of Tripoli, angered by this decision made a new truce with Saladin.

King Guy de Lusignan, enraged by this truce marched towards Galilee with a big army to besiege Tiberias fortress of Raymond's wife. In the meantime Saladin made his way through Galilee and sent his reconnaissance force according to truce with Raymond. Unwillingly Raymond allowed this and this resulted in a clash of Saladin's forces with Jerusalem's forces which ended on heavy life loss to crusaders. This incident made Raymond III and Guy de Lusignan realize the real threat to crusader occupation. Raymond III renounced the truce and Guy de Lusignan, Raymond III and other noble crusaders gathered an army of 20,000 for a certain war in near future.

Siege Of The Tiberias Fortress: On 30th of June 1187, Saladin crossed the Jordan river and besieged the Tiberias fortress of Raymond's wife on 2nd of July. He occupied the city and fortress except a keep where Raymond's wife and other nobles took shelter. Saladin had much more important tasks on his preference list.

Gathering Of Crusaders In Acre: All the allied crusader army gathered at Acre was approximately having 20,000 warriors and it was being led by Guy de Lusignan, Raymond III, Raynald de Chatillon and others. They were at the springs of Saffuriya when Saladin besieged the Tiberias fortress to lure them into moving their army from safety of Saffuriya to the ambush at Tiberias.

Marching From Saffuriya To Tiberias: At the night of 2nd July a crusader council of nobles discussed the siege of Tiberias and possible strategy to deal with Saladin's growing threat to their rule. Harold Lamb writes that Raymond was all for staying at Saffuriya's springs as he knew that best strategy against Muslim armies was staying safely in well-supplied forts. He even showed his readiness to lose his wife's fortress of Tiberias for safety and survival of crusaders. However reportedly he was condemned by Gerard Rideford and Raynald de Chatillon. At the end of meeting logic was victorious over crusaders' zeal, but in midnight Raynald and his fellows persuaded Guy de Lusignan to march towards Tiberias. King Guy passed orders for march.

March On July 3rd: At the dawn of July 3rd crusaders started marching towards Tiberias. They were fresh and very organized, willing to fight with their enemy. Their religious zeal was leading them towards death and the sight of the piece of the true cross was enough to incite them on sacrificing their lives or taking lives of 'the infidels'. Guy de Lusignan was leading the main army, Raymond III was leading the vanguard and Raynald de Chatillon and religious zealots like him were leading the rearguard. Saracen horse archers were continuously showering arrows on crusaders.

By noon they reached a small village named as Turan, there they stayed at a spring and took a rest for a short time and decided to march further for Tiberias and it's waters. Half day was past and this was a foolish decision but as Saladin said "Satan incited Guy to do what ran counter to his purpose." Saladin took advantage of this stupid decision and as at Suffuriya he left no way to them but to fight , he did the same and sent some army to capture the village of Turan which was crusaders' line of retreat. This made them sure that for life, for victory and for water they had to pave their way towards Tiberias.

The night of 3rd July saw thirsty and tired crusaders at horns of Hattin, far from Tiberias, on top of a hill.They had to settle their camp in hurry. The well was empty so at night when crusaders were tired and thirsty, Muslim soldiers were drinking water in the well-watered valley.

Crusaders thirsting for water before the battle

4th July The Battle Day:

"They were closely beset as in a noose, while still marching on as though being driven to death that they could see before them, convinced of their doom and destruction and themselves aware that the following day they would be visiting their graves." Baha Al-Din Ibn Shaddad

20,000 crusaders having approximately 10,000 foot soldiers, a few hundred turcopoles and a large number of mounted knights marched towards Tiberias. There was waiting Saladin with 30,000 of his men.12000 of them were regular cavalry.

On the morning of  4th July crusaders found them on top of hill blinded by smoke from fire set by Saladin's soldiers. They were defeated before proper beginning of the battle. Desperate crusaders organized their battle lines and attacked but they were badly defeated. When they realized that it was impossible they changed their direction for the waters of hattin but it was impossible as they were encircled by Saracen soldiers. Raymond gathered his harassed knights and in a last attempt he made his way through wall of Muslim soldiers to the water of Galilee.Most of the crusaders' infantry deserted to the horns of Hattin, without infantry protection all crusader heavy cavalry was forced to fight on foot and then they were forced to retreat to horns of Hattin like their infantry. Soon the King Guy's camp on top of the hill fell to the continuous attacks of Saracen soldiers. This signified crusaders' defeat. According to Saladin's son Al-Afdal's account, Saladin dismounted, thanked God and wept for joy.

A depiction of the Battle of Hattin in a medieval manuscript

Aftermath:

Battle of Hattin was a severe blow to crusaders' morale as every Christian man able to fight joined King Guy at Suffuriya and got killed. Now crusader citadels and forts had a little to no defending soldiers available. All crusader nobles were now prisoners of war. Saladin himself slaughtered Raynald de Chatillon with his scimitar. Raymond III died in Tripoli soon after this defeat. Saladin was kind and merciful to crusader prisoners. By mid-September Saladin's forces took cities of Acre, Nablus, Jaffa, Toron, Sidon, Beirut and Ascalon with little to no resistance. On September 20, 1187 Saladin was on the gates of Jerusalem with a strength of 30,000 soldiers. On October 2, 1187 Balian de Ibelin surrendered city to Saladin. Saladin allowed citizens, knights, Patriarch Heraclius of the Jerusalem and Queen to leave Jerusalem peacefully. He payed ransom of those who were poor. News of the defeat at Hattin and subsequent defeat at Jerusalem shocked the Europe and people were in deep mourning. Pope Urban III died of shock. Saladin tithe was imposed in England and France. Pope Gregory VIII called for the third crusade which was joined by King Richard the Lionheart of England, King Frederick  Barbarossa of Holy Roman Empire and King Philip Augustus of France.

A scene depicting execution of Raynald de Chatillon after the defeat at Hattin 
Kingdom of Heaven (2005)

 Conclusion:

I would conclude by saying that battle of Hattin is an example of the art of war strategy. Saladin's invasion of Tiberias shows that he took the offensive stance. Best for him was to lure crusaders into a field battle where his relatively big number of forces could slaughter crusaders. Best strategy for crusaders was to stay safe in their forts as they did before and defeated Saladin, but they took the bait. They left the city of Acre and then their last defense in Saffuriya. They were eventually thirsty and tired at the Horns of Hattin and thus they lost war before its beginning. Hattin's battle was going to have important effects. As the battle resulted in favor of Saladin, this caused severe blow to crusaders' morale and they lost one after another cities and castles with little or no resistance at all. When this news was heard in Europe, Pope Urban III died of shock and third crusade was launched after news of subsequent defeat at Jerusalem, but in Saladin's life crusaders were never able to take back Jerusalem or to avenge the defeat at Hattin though they had success in taking back the city of Acre.

The Battle Of Tours 732 A.D.

 A depiction of Charles Martel facing Abd Al-Rehman in the battle of Tours

Introduction:

The battle of Tours, which is also called the battle of Poitiers, was fought between the armies of Umayyad Caliphate and Franks in 732 . This battle was fought at a place which was between two French cities named as Tours and Poitiers. Muslim army was being led by Emir Abd Al-Rehman Al Ghafiqi, Governor General of Al-Andulus and Frankish army was being led by Charles Martel of France. Around 15,000 to 20,000 Frankish warriors fought with around 20,000 to 25,000 Muslims. Casualties were very low on Frankish side but 12,000 Muslim warriors with their Emir were killed. Some historians are of opinion that battle of Tours was a decisive battle as that brought Islam's penetration into Europe to a standstill. On the other hand few historians reject this notion and argue that only after 3 years of this defeat, Umayyad caliphate again invaded Gaul and conquered much important cities.However both Christian and Muslim historians acknowledge importance of this battle in regional and world history.

A map showing place of battle

Background: 


Muslims set foot on Iberian peninsula in 711 under command of Umayyad general Tariq Ibn-Ziyad. Most of the Iberian peninsula was named as Al-Andalus in Umayyad rule. Soon Tariq's master Musa Bin Nusayr joined him and both conquered most of what is today Spain, Portugal and some parts of France. Muslims established Umayyad province of Al-Andalus on those conquered lands. Umayyad armies crossed the mountains of Pyrenees and carried on expanding northward into Frankish territories of Gaul until Charles Martel stopped them for a short period. 

Umayyads easily set up a base at Narbonne in northern Spain, from where they kept on sending armies into old Roman Gaul. In 721 Duke Odo of Aquitaine decisively defeated a big Umayyad sieging army but this didn't stop ever-growing Muslims' aim to penetrate deep in Europe through old Roman Gaul. Muslim armies' penetrations even reached the city of Auton in Burgundy in year 725. In 730 Duke Odo allied with Berber Emir Uthman and this resulted in cease of Umayyad invasions in his territory. However in 731 Emir Uthman rebelled against the governor of Al-Andalus, Emir Abd Al-Rehman. Abd Al-Rehman immediately crushed the rebellion and sent armies towards Duke Odo . That army defeated Duke Odo badly at Bordeaux and devastated southern Gaul and split off into several raiding parties looting and destroying everywhere. One of the main raiding parties advanced on Tours where Mayor of Palace, Charles Martel was waiting for them. Both armies fought where the river Clain joins the river Vienne between Tours and Poitiers.

A depiction of Charles Martel

Important Events: 

Here are a few important events which happened before the day of battle came;

Duke Odo's Submission To Frankish Authority: Duke Odo, after his ultimate defeat at Bordeaux, asked Franks for help against common enemy. Help was granted on condition that Duke Odo had to submit to Frankish authority for this deal. This united two powerful enemies of Umayyads. Till that time Umayyads were not aware of Charles Martel's power.

Regrouping Of Saracen Raiding Parties: For seven days Saracens waited for the rest of their raiding parties until those joined the main raiding party. This gave Umayyads the maximum strength which they could gather but this also let Charles Martel collect his seasoned infantry and some militia from the outskirts of the kingdom . Saracen forces established a camp where they kept supplies, loot from Bordeaux and slaves.

Favorable Conditions For Charles Martel: Charles Martel was lucky that Saracens took some time to reunite their strength as this provided him a chance to call his infantry from outskirts of the kingdom. He chose high ground and defensive phalanx-like formation. Forest trees and high ground helped him to reduce effects of Saracens' cavalry attacks and to deceit them about number of Frankish soldiers.

A depiction of a Frankish Knight fighting assaulting a Saracen horseman, from 19th century.

10th October The Battle Day:

Charles Martel was fully aware of the abilities and power of his enemies, on the other hand Umayyads were not aware of this new enemy and his strength. He formed his troops uphill in a phalanx-like, tight and defensive formation. He had the edge of high ground and forest trees to lower intensity of Saracen cavalry's attack. Best strategy for him was to wait for Saracens to either retreat or leave their edge of open field to the ambush set uphill by Frankish seasoned warriors. Saracens wanted to lure him into open field where Saracen cavalry could slaughter them like they did in Bordeaux. To avoid coming winter season, Abd Al-Rehman decided to launch a devastating cavalry attack on enemy uphill. Till that war Saracens' confidence on their mounted mujahidin was never proved wrong.

 Umayyad army was about 25,000 and Frankish army was about 20,000. Saracens had big number of cavalry with heavy armor, on the contrary Charles Martel's men were mostly foot soldiers with very heavy armor made of wood and steel. They were seasoned infantry soldiers and they have fought many battles in command of Charles Martel. 

Umayyad heavy cavalry launched many attack in hope to break the tight defensive wall of Frankish soldiers but they failed. In one attempt to kill Charles Martel they broke into his defense but his loyal guards failed Umayyads' desperate attempt to kill their commander. Meanwhile Charles Martel made his militia attack and harass Saracens' camp which resulted in escape of many Frank slaves. To secure their loot from Bordeaux, a big number of Saracen heavy cavalry returned to their camp. Charles Martel was successful in diverting their attention to their camp. Abd Al-Rehman tried to stop the routing cavalry. He got surrounded by many Frankish knights and got killed that fateful day. This made all Saracen cavalry and foot soldiers withdraw to their camp. That night Saracen army stayed at their camp and Franks rested in their tight defensive formation to stop any possible attack.

At the dawn of other day when no attack was launched from Saracens, Charles Martel thought that they wanted to lure him down the hill. It was discovered later on investigation that Umayyad camp was abandoned in haste. They even left their tents. Umayyads left for Iberia with whatever loot they had left after Frankish attack on their camp. Umayyads unexpectedly retreated that night. 

Tomb of Charles Martel at Basilica of St. Denis in Peris

 Aftermath:

This defeat brought Umayyad invasion of France to a standstill. Charles got his name 'Martel' because of this battle, which means 'hammer'. Umayyad confidence on their heavy cavalry was lost in this war and never again they or their successor Moors trusted fully upon their cavalry. Umayyad army retreated south over the Pyrenees. Odo died in 735 and his son refused to acknowledge Charles as his overlord, soon but he had to do the opposite when Umayyads invaded again.

Second Umayyad invasion took the cities of Arles and Avignon. Those armies of second invasion launched raids on Lyons, Burgundy, and Piedmont. Charles Martel defeated second invasion armies everywhere and took all the land back. After this invasion Muslims never caused any big problem to Gaul.

Narbonne was the only city which was not conquered by Charles Martel. Muslim rulers of that city foresaw that Charles Martel can only be stopped by making agreements of mutual defense with local Visigoth populace of Narbonne and other towns. In 737 Charles Martel's siege of Narbonne failed due to joint defense by Muslim Arabs, Berbers and Christian Visigoths of that city. 

Though Narbonne was never conquered in Charles Martel's life, but his son Pippin the Short forced Narbonne to surrender in 759. His grandson Charlemagne became the first Christian king to begin the reconquista. Charles Martel is thus rightfully called savior of Christianity in Europe.

 A brief narrative of battle by History TV.

Conclusion:

Importance of the battle of Tours to Christian historians is as much as Gibbon wrote that if Charles Martel had not defeated Muslims at Tours "Perhaps the interpretation of the Koran would now be taught in the schools of Oxford, and her pulpits might demonstrate to a circumcised people the sanctity and truth of the revelation of Mahomet."

On the contrary few historians are of opinion that Muslim wave of invasion was already a thousand miles away from its base in Gibraltar, let alone their base in Africa. It had reached its natural limit. Some believe that there was nothing valuable in France of that time to attract invaders, so attack at Tours was 'just another attempt' to occupy a place in France and to loot another city. However it is true that Charles Martel's victory against Muslims at Tours is very significant in regional and world history. 

Muslims were relying on their heavy cavalry till that war. It was their fault that they made wrong guess about opponent's power, which was its strong and seasoned infantry. According to some sources Charles Martel's infantry soldier had around 35 KG armour on his body, which was made of steel and wood. Moreover he took the benefit of taking an initiative in a war. So when Saracens' army reached the city of Tours, they saw a tight defensive wall of well-equipped foot soldiers on a high ground. However it was Frankish militia's threat to booty and Abd Al-Rehman's decision to attack first which became reason of this defeat.